Human Performance Technology

On our campus this year the administration wants students involved in constructivist activities where they can be creative, interact with others and construct knowledge. The staff have been conducting walk-through evaluations, collect data concerning use of these activities and they report the results at staff meetings about every three weeks.  There have been many improvements since instructors in core curriculum classes went to IPad trainings last summer and were able to bring back five IPads each to use in the classroom. However over half of the walkthroughs still show most instruction is still teacher led with passive activity on the part of the students. Chapter 14 which deals with Human Performance Improvement (HPI), that is to achieve through people increasingly successful accomplishments, directly tied to organizational goals, that are valued by all stakeholders, . . . (p. 135).  Through reading I was able to identify several non-instructional solutions that might help solve this problem. 

courtesy of Flylib.com -  http://flylib.com/books/en/3.398.1.14/1/

The first is Gilbert’s Behavior Engineering Model which focuses on changing the barriers to employee performance in organizations.  Gilbert understood that workplace performance usually requires both employee and environmental interventions.  From the picture to the right you can see the questions Gilbert felt necessary to modify the situation.

Another evaluation model I felt would be good to consider was created by the International Society for Performance Improvement.  They began in the 60’s with views based on behavioral psychology and Instructional Systems Design.Today they have expanded their views to include productivity and performance in the workplace. This model is shown to below:

courtesy of Advance HR systems - http://goo.gl/sCvkY

And the last evaluation model I thought would be helpful is in the book, Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Space in the Organization Chart (Rummler & Brache, 1995) (p.141).  The book gives a detailed account on how to bridge the gaps between organization, processes and jobs.

Chapter 15 introduces us to Performance Support Systems are defined as a system which allows performers with varying levels of access to support information and tools at the moment of need (p.148). In the situation of our school, we would be using an Electronic Performance Support System. This would all teachers access to an electronic environment immediately with individualized online access to a full range of information including software, guidance, and learning assistance whenever they needed it. Instructors would be able to perform their job with a minimum of support and intervention by others. The Electronic Performance Support System would be an excellent idea to help teachers incorporate more constructive learning experiences into lessons and I think it would be a great idea in the problem  at our school. The system might include instruction materials that would include lesson plans, a teachers guide and software to be used in teaching. Links to sites where examples of constructive instruction for classroom use could be added.  Multimedia databases such as EBSCO and Discovery Education could be used for material to create lessons and as reference.  That would be wonderful since I know the textbooks in the Science classroom are at least 8 years old. Instructor schedules could be arranged where one period a day teachers within core subjects could meet and discuss ideas or problems they are having with more active activities in the classroom.  Working collaboratively would help solve many of these problems.  At our school, teachers used to have a team period to discuss ideas such as this, but this has been taken out allowing teachers only one class period a day for planning.  Much of this is taken up with grading, parent conferences or planning lessons.

Chapter 16 gave me a look at Knowledge Management Systems and their importance in solving problems.  They are defined as “the creation, archiving and sharing of valued information,. . .”(Reiser & Dempsey, p.159). In the case of teachers creating more constructivist learning activities in which students interact with students, this would be so helpful.  Many times teachers don’t always listen to or remember what they learned at trainings. Having the tools organized and within easy reach in an instant would be a great asset for teachers. The knowledge needed would be information and links from workshops on techniques and teaching resources using the IPads.  Websites which support curriculum and offer examples of lessons and ideas.  An area would also be nice for teachers to voice concerns or offer advice about other information they found. Also included could be rubrics to help grade projects and databases such as EBSCO and Discovery Education.  These databases would help teachers plan future lessons with current information and teaching suggestions.  All this information could be collected by a curriculum coordinator, organized and placed in a Wiki.  

Far Side by Gary Larsen

Teachers on the campus would have access to this instantly for ideas, past training information in addition to suggestions from others. This would give them time a great chance to collaborate even if they could not all meet together.  They could even join with other schools in the town or surrounding area and share ideas.  Using a wiki would not limit them to a particular space.  They might even group the wikis according to the core subjects, math, science, reading and so on.  A wiki dedicated to each topic. “Learning through knowledge management - in the workplace and in real time - is essential for a smarter, more productive enterprise.” (Reiser & Dempsey, p.167).

The chapter on informal learning, (Chap. 17) led me to reflect on all the opportunities I have missed guiding students when I realized how much of this type learning goes on in the library.  I read through several articles on the internet to help find a definition that I thought was short, sweet and to the point.  I basically came up with informal learning comes from activities and interests in which we participate.  Another definition from Michael Eury’s blog Stickylearning is one I found quite amusing.  He said, “people become so engrossed in what they are doing that they don't see that they are learning - until they have learnt (if this makes sense?)”.  I especially liked the picture with the fish he displayed with this thought, “The benefit of Informal learning is that fish are the last to recognize water”.

Courtesy of Sticklearning -   http://goo.gl/PAkb0

One type of informal learning that could be found in the library is in the magazine section which is just for teens.  Last year my principal came to me and wanted to order more magazines with interests for our student population.  He suggested magazines that dealt with electronics, sports and teen magazines for girls.  Right now we carry Sports Illustrated for Kids, Boys Life, BMX, Wired and J-14, Popstar and Girls Life for girls.  I was able to order four soft bean bag type chairs for students and I have arranged a small seating area near a sunny window where kids love to sit and read when they visit the library.  This is great for students and they do not realize they are strengthening their reading skill which are not just necessary when they are a teen but good reading skills are critical to future success in the workplace. These students may happen upon information about a career they may be interested later in life or just current information in the world. This would give them a chance to have a conversation with their parents or friends about something they learned about. They could also share this information through a social networking site or an Edmodo site if any teacher has this setup to aid in her classroom management.  One way to share this knowledge would be through a school library webpage.  The librarian could find out from students maybe in a survey about what they have read and why did they find it interesting.  I don’t think this information could be codified but it could be managed through a newsletter created by the librarian and made by the website Smore. This newsletter could then be attached as a link to the library webpage. The librarian could update the page each month with new information on what students are learning in the library.  Since the newsletter would be linked to the webpage these informal experiences could be shared with other students, parents even other librarians. Everyone would have access to the types of informal learning experiences in our school.

Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

This week I looked at evaluation models in Instructional Design and was asked to find two models I could use in evaluating my instruction.  The first model I found was the Addie Instructional Design Model. It is probably one of the best know instructional models that was originally developed in 1975 to help  instructional designers and training developers.  Since it’s beginning there have been over one hundred variations of the model.  It was one of the first instructional design models to propose an organized process for developing and improving instruction.  ADDIE is an acronym for analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. 

Analysis phase - The problem is identified, goals and objectives are established and the environment and learner characteristics are identified.
Design - The instructional strategies are identified and the media choices are made.
Develop - The materials are produced according to the design phase.
Implement - At this point, prototypes are tested with the intended audience putting the product into full production.  Trainers and learners are also instructed on how to use the product.
Evaluation - This consists of the Formative and Summative Evaluations. Actually the Formative is present in each stage and the Summative consists of criterion related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from others.
One unique feature of this model is each step has an outcome that feeds into the next step. If the instructor follows these steps exactly it will help insure important issues are not overlooked or forgotten.  The concerns with the ADDIE model point toward it’s age.  Even though it has been redesigned several times, critics still feel it was developed at a time when instructional design was very new and the design courses had to be created quickly to meet the demand. Many think in the beginning, there were fewer expectations about what the training should accomplish.  Still others  argue this model produces passive type training activities and there is a lack of learner input..  Turning these around toward active learning takes a tremendous amount of effort, which is something many teacher are not willing to do. An evaluation using this model in my instruction will take a look at the different steps in a Heredity Lesson. I designed the lesson earlier this year with the Science teachers to use in their classrooms.
Analysis Phase - The purpose of this instruction is for students to learn about dominant and recessive traits in heredity.  Students will be instructed how create a Wordle word cloud and insert different characteristics of dominant and recessive traits they learn from instruction. The purpose/objectives for this lesson are:
1.  Make a distinction between inherited and acquired traits.
2.  Relate genes to the inheritance of traits.
3.  Inherited Traits are observable characteristics passed from parent to child.
4.  All traits an individual possess makes them unique.
5.  Although individuals may share traits with others, traits between family members are more common.
The learners were 7th graders with diverse learning abilities.  The diverse abilities include visual and auditory learners, ESL students and students with learning modifications.  To address these problems the script of the video will be read aloud, materials will be provided to assist in identifying traits and the teacher will act as a guide to answer any questions.  The room will be set up to give the learner the best possibility of success and computers and a printer will be available to students to complete their project.
Design -  The Instructional Objective for this lesson involves using Wordle as an active learning strategy.  Students will complete a list of the dominant and recessive observable traits discussed and seen in the classroom with 100% accuracy.  Students will also learn to use the Web 2.0 tool Wordle. The teacher will act as a guide walking around the room, asking guiding questions and offering help or assistance as needed.
Develop - Students will produce a word cloud.  The dominant traits will be listed with Capital letters and the recessive traits will be listed in lower case letters.  Information for the traits is obtained from the Design phase. Copies will be made of the Wordles to display on the wall in the Science classroom. The instructions for producing the Wordle will be presented by the teacher using an overhead projector and a laptop to demonstrate the activity and answer any questions.
Implement - This lesson will be presented in the 7th grade science classroom. Students will need access to the computer and the Web 2.0 tool, Wordle. The instructions for producing the Wordle will be presented by the teacher using an overhead projector and a laptop to demonstrate the activity and answer any questions.  A finished copy of a Wordle will be shown to students to verify what is expected in the activity.
Evaluation - Evaluation of the students will be the finished product in addition to a teacher student discussion.  Characteristics of traits, the appearance of genes in the passing of traits and what is needed for certain traits to appear will be included in the discussion.  With the availability of laptops a Web program called TodaysMeet may be used with the discussion to increase participation.  This will also help answer questions, highlight areas of misunderstanding and give students a chance to make comments.
 

The next model I found was the ARCS Model. This was a very interesting model of Instructional Design to research.  It is based entirely on motivation skills to help learners succeed. Before the ARCS Model was introduced, classroom instructors did not have the information or models available to use in motivating learners.  John Keller(1983,1984 & 1987) is an Educational Researcher who created the model. Its purpose was to help educators meet their objectives by designing activities and strategies as a guide to stimulate students and help them develop knowledge.  The model has been extremely popular and used around the world in schools, corporations and government.  The ARCS acronym stands for attention, relevance, confidence, satisfaction.  The words were chosen from research human motivation.
Attention - In this phase different activities should be made available to students to spark their interest.  This can include active participation, humor, brainstorming or specific examples.  I remember a science teacher at our school who would begin many of the units he taught with jokes and riddles to capture the students attention.  They loved the humor and you could hear them repeating the jokes in the hallway.
Relevance - This is where the benefits of the study are explained to the learner.  They will understand what they learn and how it can be applied to their lives.  This can include present work or adding the knowledge to skills they already possess.
Confidence - This strategy explains to the learner what can be expected from the activity. Sharing this with the students should motivated them to have a desire to study.
Satisfaction - The experience the learner will receive once the activity is completed.  This sense of achievement can be recognized by praise from a higher up, special activity or entertainment.  Our school used to take students on a trip to the movies in December for those who had maintained a B average or above and had met the behavior objectives since the beginning of the year. This was quite successful; the students looked forward to a small break from school near Christmas.  
As with any instructional design there are strengths and weaknesses. The strengths with this model include:
1. This is a very easy model to follow.
2. It provides the students ample time for research and completion of the project.
3.  Students are allowed to choose the material they are to learn.  The teacher is present to help solve problems.  
4.  The teacher is accountable for the activity and the outcome.
The weaknesses identified were:
1. The teacher may not be familiar with the audience.  If this is the case, gaining the interest of the group and motivating them may be difficult.
2. The instructor needs to be creative with the material in order to keep the students interested.  I remember teaching my class about the different areas of the brain and how they perceived objects.  We studied pictures of illusions as the lesson went along and the students were so involved.  They loved the effect the different illusions had on their thinking.
3.  There must be funding for the instructor if necessary.
To illustrate how I would use this model to evaluate my instruction, I will take a lesson I recently completed with a science teacher.  The lesson discussed elements, namely understanding the nature of protons, and neutrons and electrons and where they are located within the element. In the Attention phase before I began the lesson I would begin with some humor about elements.  A good website for this subjec can be found at http://www.sciencekids.co.nz/jokes/chemistry.html .  We learned about this technique in a teacher training before at the beginning of the year.  Many teachers at our school that have used this introduction and had great results.During the Relevance phase I would explain how important it is to know a little about each element.  This is something that I would add to the lesson I had planned.  I can understand how it might help the students understand the importance of studying this material.  Some elements mixed together can be very poisonous such as ammonia and bleach (sodium hypochlorite).  I then give a few more examples of chemicals they may be familiar with  before I began the Prezi presentation.  In the Confidence phase of the lesson, I would stress how important it is to use the Periodic Table when working with these elements.  The table gives so much information that is expected of them to be learned.  They just have to know a few rules to correctly find the information needed for protons, neutrons and electrons.  This could help them with worksheets or a test later. They just need to be able to read the periodic table. They would then complete a group activity by putting the elements in different stations around the room based on specific information. This was basically what I had planned for this stage of the model. Finally in the Satisfaction stage I would have them create a model of an element with the protons and neutrons in the middle and the electrons circling around the outside. The class could then try to name the elements that were made with the use of the periodic table.  Each model would be held up and students could raise their hand to answer. This would be the activity to replace the worksheet I had planned. The class studied the first twenty elements so each student could complete one himself or work with a partner.  Positive feedback and reinforcement should make each student feel good about their accomplishments.

Reading through the textbook I thought of several questions that should be asked when looking at instructional design.  These questions are not directed toward how much the learner will acquire through instruction, but rather based on other areas of the design.

1.  What are the education needs acting upon this training project?
2.  How will you define success for the student and the program? You must set achievable
    goals.
3.  Was the model easy to use?
4.  Are the individual content units complete, accurate, and up-to-date?
5.  Will the teacher deliver the instruction face-to-face or online? Will it be instructor led unit or
    will it be self-paced?
6.  What technology best promotes the particular learning goal in an efficient manner?
7.  Has sufficient time been allotted to design the program?
8.  Can the training/instruction be improved?
9.  Is it worth improving?
10. What are the risk factors associated with this investment?  Factors that need to be looked at
     are multiple stakeholders, lack of leadership or a change in leadership, rapid changes in
     technology and misalignment of objectives.

I am always trying to get teachers to try new technology tools to use in lessons in the classroom during this time of economic decline, in addition to the fact kids love technology.  This is such a relevant topic today and I was so glad to see it as one of our questions. I just attended a Library Academy workshop this week and learned so much about Google Docs and the interactive tools you can use with it in the classroom.  Everything from students creating presentations, using note taking tools, teachers worksheets, interactive tools to use during discussions and teacher created tests. The tests can even be graded by a program called Flugaroo.  Using the Situated Leadership Theory.  According to the theory, successful leaders can use more than one type of leadership style.  The style needed is based on the maturity of the people on the team and the task details. The four styles or phases are:

Phase I - The leaders tell the group what to do and exactly how to accomplish it without being overbearing.
Phase II - The leaders still provide leadership and direction but they move to a role where there is more communication with the group, they clear up any misunderstandings and acknowledge improvements. At this point the leader wants to “sell” the group on his idea, product or service.
Phase III - As the group becomes more confident, the leader now focuses more on relationships within the group and the results they are achieving.  Decision making is also shared.
Phase IV - The leader passes most of the responsibility to the follower or group. they have learned to work together to produce the main idea, product or service. The leader still but is less involved in decisions.

Since I used to teach science, I can see how these would be so helpful to a science teacher.  More up to date facts for teachers to use in class and students to use in presentations.  The leader will be the a teacher on another campus who is skilled in the use of the Google Docs and has used them in his classroom. He will be explaining to the eight other 7th & 8th grade teachers on our campus.  

Leadership Style	Description
Telling/Directing	The leader makes the presentation explaining the benefits of using Google Docs in the classroom and giving teachers a preview of the ones they will use. He explains  the benefits and how it will involve the students more actively and at the same time save work for the teachers and money for the district.  He then explains to teachers which docs, or applications, would be useful giving an example of how to use each one.  He leaves teachers with a detailed Smore website page, he has designed, which gives teachers all the websites they visited with the information he has given.  They may use this information to refer back to when setting up the docs to use in the classroom.
Selling/Coaching	The group meets back in two months.At this meeting the leader still provides direction but at the same time starts moving to making relationships with those in the group and wanting to hear what they have to say. He begins by asking about problems they may have which need to be cleared up.  He then praises their use of the tools and asks if they don’t agree many have made instruction easier and more organized.  He asks others to share their experiences to help those that are not quite on board.
Participating/Supporting	The group will meet in another two months.  By this time all teachers are familiar with the tools.  The leader focuses on hearing what has been going with using the tools in instruction.  He does not direct, but listens more as the group begins to make decisions about the use of Google Docs in instruction.
Delegating	In another two months when they meet, the leadership role has now moved to the teachers.  They are very familiar with the product and have begun to use it daily in their classes.  They work more as a team solving problems that come up between themselves.

_______________________________________________
ISU College of Education - http://ed.isu.edu/addie/

Learning-Theories.com -  http://www.learning-theories.com/addie-model.html

Online Teaching Tips - http://goo.gl/YEG5e

Motivation Design - http://goo.gl/In7tC

Learning Theories.com - http://goo.gl/YnyTl

Upside Down Learning - http://goo.gl/Rt9W1

ADDIE model - http://goo.gl/fbl3H

ARCS model - http://goo.gl/XIDB2

Questions image - http://goo.gl/f3jCG

Situational Leadership - http://www.heftfaculty.co.uk/node/589

Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

From our reading, I found Epistemology is the study of what is knowledge and how we come to know.  It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the possibility and extent of human knowledge.  Researchers want to know the origin, the nature of concepts and the construction of concepts. Those in the field of learning and instruction want to understand how a learner comes to know, how can that process be brought about and is what we know justified or true. Are there limits to human knowledge and how much can we know? The primary problem in epistemology is to understand exactly what is needed in order for us to have true knowledge. How should it be tested and evaluated? On the other hand, instructional methods or theories are concerned with how to help people learn and develop knowledge. Instructional theories are ideas about how learning is accomplished and methods are the educational approach for turning knowledge into learning.  Their primary focus is how to structure the material so the acquisition of knowledge and skills are effective, appealing, and efficient. This includes the development of the materials, their use and evaluation.   As it has been said there is more than one way to skin a cat, well there is more than one way to present educational material. Using the constructivist approach, an example of this could be seen in my science class at the beginning of the year. Students conducted an experiment on developing hypotheses. Working in groups with a pre-measured and cut piece of foil, they were to build a boat and hypothesize how many pennies would it hold floating on water. I liked watching the students see them working together discussing what they knew about boats, which would make the best design then testing their design by adding pennies. I would often guide them with questions on the design of the boat.  Many would ask for another piece of foil to make improvement as they learned about the construction  from adding the pennies and the best way to construct the boat. Instructional theories are ideas about how learning is accomplished and methods are the educational approach for turning knowledge into learning.  As the instructor I considered the learning objectives for the class before choosing this method of instruction.

    Contextualism states “knowing” as in one context an expression of a knowledge attribution that can be true, but then in another context with higher standards for knowledge, the same statement can be false. Contextual epistemologists maintain that whether one knows is somehow relative to the context. Certain features of contexts such as intentions and members assumptions of a conversational context set the standards that one must meet in order for their beliefs to count as knowledge. This gives the possibility that different contexts set different epistemic standards, and contextualists invariably maintain that the standards do in fact vary from context to context. For example in the library my student aids will ask those checking out books for the number (meaning student ID), but to be cute many times the one checking out the book will recite their phone number instead. This differs from both positivists and relativists stances.
    The positivists stance is they view knowledge as a key goal in the scientific approach that can only be created through controlled study and the management of facts. These must be proven true pieces of knowledge. The positivist epistemologies point of view  says that knowledge is just the factual and verifiable information.  This method does not depend on the student processing information but rather it is more dependent upon the student being able to regurgitate the information in a factual way.
    The relativists however view that truth and falsity which are connected to a social group or individual are parallel. This means no statements are objectively true or false. Truth is relative to a person or culture. These followers deny that anything can at all can be known. They feel everything is a matter of opinion even science. It even argues that there is a cognitive, moral and cultural bias which prevent us from seeing something from an objective view with our own senses. Their position is the truth of a proposition depends on who interprets it because no moral or cultural consensus can or will be reached.

    The social constructivist still has another view theory on learning.  Social constructivists take constructivism into social settings, wherein groups construct knowledge for one another and collaboratively create a small culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings. Their beliefs are based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. These underlying beliefs they hold are that reality is constructed constructed through human activity. Knowledge is made by humans and socially and culturally constructed.  It does not take place just within the individual or is created by the passive development of behaviors.   A social constructivist teacher creates a context for learning in which students can become engaged in interesting activities that encourages and facilitates learning. The teacher does not simply stand by, however, and watch children explore and discover but instead acts as a guide students as they approach problems.  Teachers present  specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and then guide the discussion  by means of questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts, information, and references to previously learned material.  This has become more evident in our school this year with the introduction of IPads in instruction.
    The behavioral learning theory’s approach to psychology and learning were based upon his belief that “learning can be understood, explained and predicted”(p.36) by the behavior of the organism.  These ideas centered around antecedents or cues in the environment that signal the appropriateness of a given behavior.  There was an link between a particular cue and the appropriate response. In this instruction, the behavior of the learner led to behavioral objectives being met through practice in instruction.  The more the student practiced the better they came to achieving the objectives.  Feedback is also important to the reinforcement of objectives.  When learners expressed the correct response they were rewarded, whereas wrong answers received no recognition. Instruction of this type might include drill and practice or flash cards or computer assisted instruction, defining and illustrating concepts or recalling facts.
     Radical Constructivists point of view from the text is that knowledge constructions to not have to correspond with reality to be meaningful.  Knowledge is not a commodity which is transported from one mind into another, rather, it is up to the individual to "link up" specific interpretations of experiences and ideas with their own reference of what is possible and viable. That is, the process of constructing knowledge is dependent on the individual's subjective interpretation of the experience not what "actually" occurred. For example, a teacher has the responsibility of ensuring the student can makes sense of the material being taught through the consideration of how the student will interpret the work rather than repeating phrases, words and definitions in the way the teacher sees fit.

    Behaviorists define learning as the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.  They focus on objectively observable behaviors which can be seen through stimulus-response activities.  They discount any mental activities and believe learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. This theory of learning was set forth by B.F. Skinner.  Examples of this type of instruction in the classroom might be drill and practice, recalling facts and defining and illustrating concepts.  All of these require reinforcement immediately for the correct response. Constructivists see learning an active process of creating meaning from different experiences. In other words, students will learn best by by trying to make sense of something on their own with the teacher as a guide to help them along the way.  This theory focuses on high level complex learning goals. In the classroom I had students ask questions, develop answers and interact with others and interpret the environment.  Other forms of instruction we used included modeling, problem based learning and authentic learning by the use of outdoor labs in the spring to study ecology. This gave students a chance to work with each other to create new knowledge.
    These two groups look at problem-solving from either ends of the spectrum. Behaviorists instruction is “teacher-centered” as opposed to “learner-centered”. Knowledge is a matter of remembering rather than acquiring knowledge. The learning is passive and information is to be learned in small parts with positive responses given for correct answers. Learning involves repetition and association and is highly mechanical. The role of the behaviorist teacher is to provide stimulus material and prompt the correct response.  The role of the learner is to be the receiver of the information and provide responses until a correct response is given and  the behavioral change is permanent.  The instruction is usually “drill and practice” and computer assisted learning where students are rewarded for correct responses.  Reinforcement for that correct response must be done quickly and appropriately.  Behavioral learning does not usually demand that a learner be able to put the skills or knowledge to use in a "real" or "authentic" situation. They  simply believe that when the time is necessary that the learner will be able to do so because he/she has the correct knowledge or skills needed for such a situation. Students are assessed primarily through tests.
    Constructivists look at problem solving through an active process.  This focuses on learners constructing their own knowledge, not simply reproducing facts and working with authentic learning activities.  Students working in groups to collaborate with others by ask questions, develop answers and interacting and interpreting the environment. The learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent real world issues.  The teacher serves as a guide, monitor, coach, tutors and facilitator.  The instructor focuses on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors ask open-ended questions and promote discussion between students. This type of learning is critical for students today since many jobs today use these methods  Assessment in constructivism supports a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner. The assessment is often blended with teaching.
       Behaviorists would probably not consider motivation a technique to help learners since they base everything on behavior and being able to observe the behavior or manipulate it. Motivation would then have to to defined in terms of specific actions and have reinforcers following the behavior. Most motivations are internal drives that cannot be measured through observation.  However I feel that a reward might be offered at the end of the activity in order for students to focus on the activity and develop the correct behavior. Constructivist learners however can be motivated by selecting problems that peak their interest and curiosity while relating to the curriculum. They could also use a new technology tool to help them in their learning. This could be seen in a primary classroom with students using electronic storybooks for reading. In this way, the instruction is more engaging, relevant and meaningful to the student.

Constructivist Pic - http://www.innovativelearning.com/teaching/constructivism.html
Behaviorist Pic - http://blog.wsd.net/jreeve/behaviorism-not-as-dead-as-previously-thought/

Defining The Field

In Chapter 1 we were asked, "How do the definitions in the first chapter compare to your own definition of instructional or educational technology?  What experiences or other influences have shaped your definition? How has your definition changed from examining the definitions in the first chapter of this book?"

This was a challenge since the field of instructional technology keeps changing.  There are so many tools, techniques and ideas which continually emerge. I feel my own definition is a combination of the the ideas presented from the past to the present.  Instructional technology is not specifically about a piece of equipment but also about finding resources to which will enhance teaching and learning. It is creating a learning system that will reach the style of the learner in a manner that is fair and appropriate. What techniques and tools will best meet the group?  Instruction should not be designed around a piece of technology, but the technology should support the instruction.  The lesson should then be continually tested, evaluated and revised to meet the needs of the learners.

Working in the classroom with students has been the biggest factor to shape my definition.  I learned quickly how to design my instruction and choose the best method of delivery based on the learning needs or styles of my students.  I would then revise what did not fit or seem to work.

I would not say my definition has changed much since I began teaching ten years ago. The technology has changed, but I have basically found that not all technology tools will work for every learner. It is finding the correct mix of the instruction and method of delivery that enhances learning in an ethical manner.

In Chapter 2 we were asked to think of a lesson or unit of instruction that we have developed. Or if we haven’t ever taught or developed instruction, think of one that we have received. How does that lesson adhere or fail to adhere to the six characteristics of instructional design? How would we redesign it to better adhere to the six characteristics?

I worked with a Science teacher developing a lesson recently using Animoto videos. Students worked with a partner to present understanding of the vocabulary for a unit on force and motion. A group of two students made a 60 second video using pictures they located online to represent their word. After uploading pictures to the site they added the vocabulary term, a short definition in their own words, 3 pictures to express the meaning and a sentence which explained understanding of the word. Using the Six Characteristics of Instructional Design I can see our lesson followed the concepts.
The Instructional design was student centered, the students were an active participant in the design to illustrate definitions. The Instructional design was goal oriented, students were able to use scientific vocabulary words, explain them in their own words and find pictures to fit the meanings while creating an Animoto project. The Instructional design focused on meaningful performance.  This activity was used at the beginning of the unit and understanding of these words was important to the rest of the unit.  Choosing pictures to describe the vocabulary words showed understanding, rather than looking up the word versus writing down the definition which the student may not understand. This was a very good activity for struggling English readers. The pictures helped them understand the words, since they could put a picture with the definition. The Instructional design assumes outcomes can be measured in a reliable and valid way.  A rubric was used which measured the performance of the students. The Instructional design was a team effort since a science teacher and I collaborated together. The only part of the Instructional design that was not met involved being empirical, iterative and self-correcting.  Data could be collected from the classes which completed the activity for feedback and to give guidance in making corrections to the lesson.

In the 3rd chapter, Reiser distinguishes instructional media from instructional design, excluding teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks from the definition of instructional media. Why? I felt teachers, chalkboards and textbooks were omitted from his Reiser’s definition in order for him to clearly describe history. I think he was mainly interested in discussing tools which had emerged since the early 1900’s since 40 years later psychologists and educators began research on the instructional principles during World War II. They would evaluate and “test the skills of  trainees who would most likely benefit from particular training programs” according to Reiser & Dempsey (2007).  This was a new area using these technology tools, which had just emerged, and I feel they were considered in a different class than teachers, chalkboards and textbooks since those had been around. I would however consider teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks as instructional media.  Although they are not technology based, except when textbook information is used from an online source, they can still be included in the instructional design with positive results. I would say yes the purpose of instructional design is to incorporate media into instruction. Instructors want  to encourage and  motivate all students to learn especially the struggling students. Our students today have grown up with technology devices and use them constantly. I feel including them in lessons properly will enhance the instructional design.

Reiser, Robert A., and John V. Dempsey. Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Boston ; Munich [u.a.: Pearson Education, 2012. Print.

Instructional Technology Picture from http://www.pgisd.net/