Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

From our reading, I found Epistemology is the study of what is knowledge and how we come to know.  It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the possibility and extent of human knowledge.  Researchers want to know the origin, the nature of concepts and the construction of concepts. Those in the field of learning and instruction want to understand how a learner comes to know, how can that process be brought about and is what we know justified or true. Are there limits to human knowledge and how much can we know? The primary problem in epistemology is to understand exactly what is needed in order for us to have true knowledge. How should it be tested and evaluated? On the other hand, instructional methods or theories are concerned with how to help people learn and develop knowledge. Instructional theories are ideas about how learning is accomplished and methods are the educational approach for turning knowledge into learning.  Their primary focus is how to structure the material so the acquisition of knowledge and skills are effective, appealing, and efficient. This includes the development of the materials, their use and evaluation.   As it has been said there is more than one way to skin a cat, well there is more than one way to present educational material. Using the constructivist approach, an example of this could be seen in my science class at the beginning of the year. Students conducted an experiment on developing hypotheses. Working in groups with a pre-measured and cut piece of foil, they were to build a boat and hypothesize how many pennies would it hold floating on water. I liked watching the students see them working together discussing what they knew about boats, which would make the best design then testing their design by adding pennies. I would often guide them with questions on the design of the boat.  Many would ask for another piece of foil to make improvement as they learned about the construction  from adding the pennies and the best way to construct the boat. Instructional theories are ideas about how learning is accomplished and methods are the educational approach for turning knowledge into learning.  As the instructor I considered the learning objectives for the class before choosing this method of instruction.

    Contextualism states “knowing” as in one context an expression of a knowledge attribution that can be true, but then in another context with higher standards for knowledge, the same statement can be false. Contextual epistemologists maintain that whether one knows is somehow relative to the context. Certain features of contexts such as intentions and members assumptions of a conversational context set the standards that one must meet in order for their beliefs to count as knowledge. This gives the possibility that different contexts set different epistemic standards, and contextualists invariably maintain that the standards do in fact vary from context to context. For example in the library my student aids will ask those checking out books for the number (meaning student ID), but to be cute many times the one checking out the book will recite their phone number instead. This differs from both positivists and relativists stances.
    The positivists stance is they view knowledge as a key goal in the scientific approach that can only be created through controlled study and the management of facts. These must be proven true pieces of knowledge. The positivist epistemologies point of view  says that knowledge is just the factual and verifiable information.  This method does not depend on the student processing information but rather it is more dependent upon the student being able to regurgitate the information in a factual way.
    The relativists however view that truth and falsity which are connected to a social group or individual are parallel. This means no statements are objectively true or false. Truth is relative to a person or culture. These followers deny that anything can at all can be known. They feel everything is a matter of opinion even science. It even argues that there is a cognitive, moral and cultural bias which prevent us from seeing something from an objective view with our own senses. Their position is the truth of a proposition depends on who interprets it because no moral or cultural consensus can or will be reached.

    The social constructivist still has another view theory on learning.  Social constructivists take constructivism into social settings, wherein groups construct knowledge for one another and collaboratively create a small culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings. Their beliefs are based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. These underlying beliefs they hold are that reality is constructed constructed through human activity. Knowledge is made by humans and socially and culturally constructed.  It does not take place just within the individual or is created by the passive development of behaviors.   A social constructivist teacher creates a context for learning in which students can become engaged in interesting activities that encourages and facilitates learning. The teacher does not simply stand by, however, and watch children explore and discover but instead acts as a guide students as they approach problems.  Teachers present  specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and then guide the discussion  by means of questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts, information, and references to previously learned material.  This has become more evident in our school this year with the introduction of IPads in instruction.
    The behavioral learning theory’s approach to psychology and learning were based upon his belief that “learning can be understood, explained and predicted”(p.36) by the behavior of the organism.  These ideas centered around antecedents or cues in the environment that signal the appropriateness of a given behavior.  There was an link between a particular cue and the appropriate response. In this instruction, the behavior of the learner led to behavioral objectives being met through practice in instruction.  The more the student practiced the better they came to achieving the objectives.  Feedback is also important to the reinforcement of objectives.  When learners expressed the correct response they were rewarded, whereas wrong answers received no recognition. Instruction of this type might include drill and practice or flash cards or computer assisted instruction, defining and illustrating concepts or recalling facts.
     Radical Constructivists point of view from the text is that knowledge constructions to not have to correspond with reality to be meaningful.  Knowledge is not a commodity which is transported from one mind into another, rather, it is up to the individual to "link up" specific interpretations of experiences and ideas with their own reference of what is possible and viable. That is, the process of constructing knowledge is dependent on the individual's subjective interpretation of the experience not what "actually" occurred. For example, a teacher has the responsibility of ensuring the student can makes sense of the material being taught through the consideration of how the student will interpret the work rather than repeating phrases, words and definitions in the way the teacher sees fit.

    Behaviorists define learning as the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.  They focus on objectively observable behaviors which can be seen through stimulus-response activities.  They discount any mental activities and believe learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. This theory of learning was set forth by B.F. Skinner.  Examples of this type of instruction in the classroom might be drill and practice, recalling facts and defining and illustrating concepts.  All of these require reinforcement immediately for the correct response. Constructivists see learning an active process of creating meaning from different experiences. In other words, students will learn best by by trying to make sense of something on their own with the teacher as a guide to help them along the way.  This theory focuses on high level complex learning goals. In the classroom I had students ask questions, develop answers and interact with others and interpret the environment.  Other forms of instruction we used included modeling, problem based learning and authentic learning by the use of outdoor labs in the spring to study ecology. This gave students a chance to work with each other to create new knowledge.
    These two groups look at problem-solving from either ends of the spectrum. Behaviorists instruction is “teacher-centered” as opposed to “learner-centered”. Knowledge is a matter of remembering rather than acquiring knowledge. The learning is passive and information is to be learned in small parts with positive responses given for correct answers. Learning involves repetition and association and is highly mechanical. The role of the behaviorist teacher is to provide stimulus material and prompt the correct response.  The role of the learner is to be the receiver of the information and provide responses until a correct response is given and  the behavioral change is permanent.  The instruction is usually “drill and practice” and computer assisted learning where students are rewarded for correct responses.  Reinforcement for that correct response must be done quickly and appropriately.  Behavioral learning does not usually demand that a learner be able to put the skills or knowledge to use in a "real" or "authentic" situation. They  simply believe that when the time is necessary that the learner will be able to do so because he/she has the correct knowledge or skills needed for such a situation. Students are assessed primarily through tests.
    Constructivists look at problem solving through an active process.  This focuses on learners constructing their own knowledge, not simply reproducing facts and working with authentic learning activities.  Students working in groups to collaborate with others by ask questions, develop answers and interacting and interpreting the environment. The learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent real world issues.  The teacher serves as a guide, monitor, coach, tutors and facilitator.  The instructor focuses on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors ask open-ended questions and promote discussion between students. This type of learning is critical for students today since many jobs today use these methods  Assessment in constructivism supports a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner. The assessment is often blended with teaching.
       Behaviorists would probably not consider motivation a technique to help learners since they base everything on behavior and being able to observe the behavior or manipulate it. Motivation would then have to to defined in terms of specific actions and have reinforcers following the behavior. Most motivations are internal drives that cannot be measured through observation.  However I feel that a reward might be offered at the end of the activity in order for students to focus on the activity and develop the correct behavior. Constructivist learners however can be motivated by selecting problems that peak their interest and curiosity while relating to the curriculum. They could also use a new technology tool to help them in their learning. This could be seen in a primary classroom with students using electronic storybooks for reading. In this way, the instruction is more engaging, relevant and meaningful to the student.

Constructivist Pic - http://www.innovativelearning.com/teaching/constructivism.html
Behaviorist Pic - http://blog.wsd.net/jreeve/behaviorism-not-as-dead-as-previously-thought/

Defining The Field

In Chapter 1 we were asked, "How do the definitions in the first chapter compare to your own definition of instructional or educational technology?  What experiences or other influences have shaped your definition? How has your definition changed from examining the definitions in the first chapter of this book?"

This was a challenge since the field of instructional technology keeps changing.  There are so many tools, techniques and ideas which continually emerge. I feel my own definition is a combination of the the ideas presented from the past to the present.  Instructional technology is not specifically about a piece of equipment but also about finding resources to which will enhance teaching and learning. It is creating a learning system that will reach the style of the learner in a manner that is fair and appropriate. What techniques and tools will best meet the group?  Instruction should not be designed around a piece of technology, but the technology should support the instruction.  The lesson should then be continually tested, evaluated and revised to meet the needs of the learners.

Working in the classroom with students has been the biggest factor to shape my definition.  I learned quickly how to design my instruction and choose the best method of delivery based on the learning needs or styles of my students.  I would then revise what did not fit or seem to work.

I would not say my definition has changed much since I began teaching ten years ago. The technology has changed, but I have basically found that not all technology tools will work for every learner. It is finding the correct mix of the instruction and method of delivery that enhances learning in an ethical manner.

In Chapter 2 we were asked to think of a lesson or unit of instruction that we have developed. Or if we haven’t ever taught or developed instruction, think of one that we have received. How does that lesson adhere or fail to adhere to the six characteristics of instructional design? How would we redesign it to better adhere to the six characteristics?

I worked with a Science teacher developing a lesson recently using Animoto videos. Students worked with a partner to present understanding of the vocabulary for a unit on force and motion. A group of two students made a 60 second video using pictures they located online to represent their word. After uploading pictures to the site they added the vocabulary term, a short definition in their own words, 3 pictures to express the meaning and a sentence which explained understanding of the word. Using the Six Characteristics of Instructional Design I can see our lesson followed the concepts.
The Instructional design was student centered, the students were an active participant in the design to illustrate definitions. The Instructional design was goal oriented, students were able to use scientific vocabulary words, explain them in their own words and find pictures to fit the meanings while creating an Animoto project. The Instructional design focused on meaningful performance.  This activity was used at the beginning of the unit and understanding of these words was important to the rest of the unit.  Choosing pictures to describe the vocabulary words showed understanding, rather than looking up the word versus writing down the definition which the student may not understand. This was a very good activity for struggling English readers. The pictures helped them understand the words, since they could put a picture with the definition. The Instructional design assumes outcomes can be measured in a reliable and valid way.  A rubric was used which measured the performance of the students. The Instructional design was a team effort since a science teacher and I collaborated together. The only part of the Instructional design that was not met involved being empirical, iterative and self-correcting.  Data could be collected from the classes which completed the activity for feedback and to give guidance in making corrections to the lesson.

In the 3rd chapter, Reiser distinguishes instructional media from instructional design, excluding teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks from the definition of instructional media. Why? I felt teachers, chalkboards and textbooks were omitted from his Reiser’s definition in order for him to clearly describe history. I think he was mainly interested in discussing tools which had emerged since the early 1900’s since 40 years later psychologists and educators began research on the instructional principles during World War II. They would evaluate and “test the skills of  trainees who would most likely benefit from particular training programs” according to Reiser & Dempsey (2007).  This was a new area using these technology tools, which had just emerged, and I feel they were considered in a different class than teachers, chalkboards and textbooks since those had been around. I would however consider teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks as instructional media.  Although they are not technology based, except when textbook information is used from an online source, they can still be included in the instructional design with positive results. I would say yes the purpose of instructional design is to incorporate media into instruction. Instructors want  to encourage and  motivate all students to learn especially the struggling students. Our students today have grown up with technology devices and use them constantly. I feel including them in lessons properly will enhance the instructional design.

Reiser, Robert A., and John V. Dempsey. Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Boston ; Munich [u.a.: Pearson Education, 2012. Print.

Instructional Technology Picture from http://www.pgisd.net/

Welcome to my blog for Instructional Design and Technology. Join me as I explore past and present descriptions, it's history, the status of it today and how issues are affecting it now and will in the future.